The Transformation of Ohio's Inhabitants from 1700 BC and Beyond

Jordan Kreager

As the Late Archaic Period transitioned, population had likely reached its highest in hundreds of years throughout the mid-Ohio River Valley. Ohio was inhabited by indigenous people for many thousands of years, as the southeastern quadrant of Ohio was part of the unglaciated Appalachian Plateau topography,ⁱ which demonstrates that this particular region offered the resources to maintain subsistence for long before 1700 BC, when it truly began to evolve through expansion and enculturation. As the rest of the valley became more ecologically hospitable, several groupings of people seemed to have developed their own lifestyles given the environmental variability throughout present day Ohio is not believed to have undergone any real significant climate or geological changes in thousands of years. However, the data presented of this time period reflects that many of these traits are seen throughout the entire region, which could indicate cultural fission or autonomic practices altogether. In either case, subsistence with both, faunal and floral taxa, tool production, degree of sedentariness, and mortuary customs all reflect similar cultural characteristics present around 1700 BC within the tribal societies of the Ohio River Valley.

The population increase of the Late Archaic Period demonstrates that this region provided a wide and diverse range of sources of nourishment. It is clear that the local fauna provided these people with the protein necessary to survive, and through the variability in stone tools found of this period, it is evident that some tools are directly linked to the processing of certain animals. The Microscopic Use-Wear Analysisⁱⁱ conducted on twenty-three Late Archaic chipped stone artifacts from the Davisson Site demonstrates that 61% of these samples display a direct association to butchering and hide-working. In addition, one Brewerton Eared-Notched point displayed traces of contact with bone on its base, suggesting that this specific point may have been attached to a bone shaft. Since Late Archaic sites in Ohio are found majorly in the vicinity of riverine ecosystems, fish and shellfish must have been core elements to subsistence strategies of these people. At the Ward site, located on a creek of Green River, evidence dictates that these people relied on aquatic resources. Shell mounds erected here obviously infer to the harvesting of shellfish and could potentially demonstrate that shellfish meat was gathered here, while the shells may have been left behind. Although only two fishhooks were found at the Ward Site it seems obvious that all riverine resources would be exploited in a variety of ways. Presumably, mammals and fish were the most sought after fauna during this period, as there was definitely no shortage of white-tailed deer in Ohio at this time in addition to several species of animals of all categories.

Another method of subsistence is revealed within the diverse content of flora available at or around 3700 BP. Raw plant remains and charcoal remains analyzed from the Davisson site indicate a notable quantity of nut shells, mainly of the thick hickory or walnut species in the samples examined. ⁱⁱⁱ While the domestication of this fauna probably did not begin until much later, it can be speculated that seed bearing grasses like chenopodium were first grown inadvertently through the mishandling of seeds, and this could have arguably led to some of the earliest instances of agriculture. Foraging in Ohio can be bountiful mostly in the summer and fall seasons with at least a few exceptions, but farming also occupies this same time range. So it is reasonable to assume that hunting and gathering occurred centuries before farming gained any real traction.

Another aspect key to the way of life of the inhabitants of Ohio appears within the various artifact assemblages recovered through the mid-Ohio Valley dated at 1700 BC. Throughout the diverse landscape of Ohio, the production of tools from various materials indigenous to the area made subsistence easier. In addition to the use of chert, or flint, for blades, drills, fishing hooks, projectiles, scrapers it is likely that there are more uses for these than can be imagined by archaeologists. Chert sparks when two pieces are struck together, so it is more than likely to have been integral in starting fires. There are arguably more chert artifacts demonstrated throughout the Ohio archaeological database than any other material recovered, but a number of other geological resources were modified for use as well. Purtill writes, “Several other Late Archaic ground- or pecked-stone tool types and material sources were used only in portions of the state.” In a burial site located on the Baker II site in Sandusky County, two bar-style birdstones found in the grave was dated at about 2850 BP. ^ivAdditionally, other geological resources were used for various manufactured objects. A hematite hemisphere recovered from the pit feature at the Ohio Horse Park site in Southern Scioto County exhibits a rough date of 3250 BP. ^v Other heavily relied on resources appear within bones for weapons or tools, clay for pottery as various Late Archaic assemblages show, and wood had been undoubtedly used in a variety of ways.

The degree of settlement during the Late Archaic has been heavily debated within Ohio archaeology, but a GIS analysis of Ohio archaeology sites demonstrates, through kernel clustering, that Late Archaic sites seem to reflect more of a sedentary pattern, mainly in the floodplains or terraces near a river or creek in effort to allocate as many resources as possible.^vi However, the length in which settlements were inhabited is hard to decipher as the seasonality of the region likely made some areas more difficult to settle than others. This supports a more semi-sedentary pattern, and through the post molds discovered at the Davisson Site this is consistent with Purtill’s observation,

Although no unambiguous house patterns were noted, an alignment of three charcoal-rich posts (features 30,105, 106) provides the site's best structural candidate (fig. 3.2).The post pattern describes a slight arc approximately 10 m long. There were no additional pits in the interior of the arc. If the arc of postmolds does represent a structure, it was apparently an open-walled shelter or domicile similar to ones described at other Late Archaic sites such as Kentucky's Grayson site. ¹

Purtill seems to have at least made a connection to semi-sedentary settlement within the mid-Ohio Valley Region and nearby areas in regard to the occurrence of a similar arrangement of postmolds, and this implies a more ‘open’ or temporary structure among various sites.

Lastly, an important glimpse of any past culture would not be possible to visualize without understanding the way in which death was approached. Mortuary ceremonialism at 3700 BP is recognized as belonging to one of two burial systems, interment in habitation sites and interment outside of habitation sites. More examination of Purtill’s research indicates that interment within habitation occurred in southern Ohio up to 3500 BP. In the case for the Dravo Gravel site in Hamilton County, Ohio, burial sites were excavated within a considerably close distance to other settlement features and contained remains that were buried in an upright sitting position. This practice was also observed at burials within the DuPont Village site. ² Thus the mortuary practices were not too complex, and little, if any, grave goods were recovered within the burials here.

By about 200 AD, subsistence strategies had changed immensely. The various ecological landscapes throughout the Ohio River Valley likely accelerated this process, and along with the cultural evolution that had transpired, subsistence became much more domesticated. With regard to the fauna hunted in the region, faunal remains have been poorly preserved at Middle Woodland sites. However, at the Brown Bottom #1 site, the earthen ovens contained bones of white tail deer at settlement sites. A significant amount of shellfish remains were found at this site as well.^vii Despite the scarcity of faunal remains, the clearing of forestry for plant domestication also would correlate to a more sedentary hunting strategy, as certain flora would attract herbivorous mammals. The importance of white tail deer within Scioto Hopewell subsistence is evident, as notated by Pacheco and Dancey, “Deer herds can sustain predation rates nearing 50 percent without an appreciable decline in numbers, especially with preferential culling of males and the ability of female deer to spontaneously twin when conditions are favorable.”^viii

Furthermore, the subsistence strategies of the Middle Woodland Hopewell people are best signified by intensified agriculture. Floral research conducted around the Licking River Valley indicate that the Murphy, Murphy III, Campus, and NUWAY all demonstrate that land was cleared for gardens with the presence of sunflower, sumpweed, erect knotweed, maygrass, goosefoot, and squash. This is corroborated through consistencies within all four site assemblages, which demonstrate the presence of the Eastern Agricultural Complex.^ix It is also theorized by Wymer that the ubiquitous presence of elderberries, raspberries, sumac, and hazelnut within the archaeobotanical assemblages of these four sites implies that a swidden system of cultivation was likely in place for obtaining a maximum yield potential within each garden plot. These four sites also offer a considerable amount of other floral data consisting of nutshell, mainly hickory and oak wood charcoal, carbonized seeds, and squash rinds.

After the domestication of plant species promoted sustainable living, 200 AD is regarded as a period where communities had almost fully transformed to sedentary settlements. By this time in Ohio earthen mounds were dispersed generously throughout the mid-Ohio Valley and beyond. This would signify some type of importance as they were not always burial mounds. Moreover, many of the earthen mounds line up with astronomical events as seen in the summer solstice at the Serpent Mound in Peebles, Ohio. New radiocarbon dating of soil samples recovered here suggests that it is over 2,000 years old. However, the date of the Serpent Mound continues to be dated.

In conclusion, Ohio's rich history of archaeological significance reflects its reverence as the perceived cradle of Hopewell civilization and culture for many reasons. There is an abundance of resources for tool-making, of which many are crafted in an artistic degree not before seen in North America at this time in archaeological history. Ohio's abundance in game and other wildlife along with its diverse floral taxa, offers a direct reflection of reasons why people also choose to settle near sources of water. The Ohio River Valley and its tributary system gave way to one of the most diverse regions of Native American culture in the historic period. It is no wonder why key historical figures like Little Turtle and Tecumseh fought the United States militias to maintain it for over 20 years.

Works Cited

1 Purtill; Down by the River page 53

2 Purtill; Down by the River page 587 & Figure 15.16

i Hicks, Abrams, and Freter: The Formation of Indigenous Sedentary Communities in the Monday Creek Tributary of the Hocking River Valley, Ohio: A GIS Archaeological Landscape Approach page 44

ii Purtill; Yerkes: Down By the River page 60-61

iii Purthill; Down By The River

iv Purtill; Stothers and Abel; Down by the River page 575

v Purtill: Down by the River page 475; Purtill2003c; see Appendix 15.A

vi Stump article; FIG. 2.9. Late Archaic site clustering

vii Pacheco, Burks, and Wymer: Investigating Ohio Hopewell Settlement Patterns in Central Ohio: A Preliminary

Report of Archaeology at Brown's Bottom #1

viii Pacheco and Dancey; Integrating Mortuary and Settlement Data on Ohio Hopewell Society page 15

ix Wymer; Paleoethnobotany in the Licking River Valley page 159