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The Cultural Variability in South America's Earliest Inhabitants
Jordan Kreager
Creating an accurate depiction of the progression of culture throughout the various stages which led to the Inca Empire, Tahuantinsuyu, requires many components to be assessed. Analysis of the earliest settlers provides a basic understanding of the earliest patterns seen among people in relation to their land. This relationship develops immensely over a broad span of time. When subsistence is established, life becomes more convenient for people, which permits the inquiry into new concepts and the development of techniques to approach these ideas. Settlement leads to the formation of villages, and agriculture develops consequently. Agriculture inspires trade interaction with different people, as the overall ecological structure of South America consists of multiple layers of diverse environments, which potentially cater to different people based on their initial reactions to these areas. Agriculture virtually led to the development of trade and most likely the basic fundamentals of economics. Ceramics acts as a catalyst for the relationship between agriculture and trade, while architecture probably began to develop after an agricultural surplus had been generated. The earliest architecture built probably served to carry out a number of cultural functions. Religious evidence marks an extremely important period and with indigenous hallucinogenic plants, the religions most likely spread within the arts, uniting larger regions into a centralized civilization. Civilizations from here became more stratified, while inhabitance of multiple ecologically different zones persisted at this time, the unity seems to be much more evident. Road systems eventually formed throughout various regions, encouraging trade and future development. The earliest settlers of South America laid an incredible foundation for future generations. An amazing course of events revealed in South America’s diverse landscape through archaeology, can be best illustrated by the cultural evolution experienced over thousands of years which eventually gave way to the largest settlement in the world at this time, The Inca Empire.
First, it can be safely assumed that the first settlers of South America probably came from different origins, used different routes to get there, and settled multiple remote regions on opposite sides of the country. This can be referred to as the Multiple Migration Theory proposed by Dillehay. He states “…people were coming into the Americas by different routes at different times, and that once better geological evidence is available, we will see that both coastal and interior routes were used more than once (286).” Archaeological data recovered from several sites stretching from Northern Venezuela, to Terra del Fuego, and then up the Eastern Coast of South America, all seem to corroborate this theory as well. In Taima-Taima of Venezuela, which dates back 14,400 to 11,860 BP, has yielded the remains of a mastodon with an El Jobo point penetrated into it, along with an open air waterhole kill site. There is no refuting that these people practiced hunting and gathering techniques. While this data may support the Clovis theory, a sharp contrast of evidence is presented at the site of Monte Verde, 32,000 to 8,000 BP. This site includes the earliest record of human evidence throughout South America, and the data found here consists of well-preserved paleobotanicals, while no points were found here at all. This is a key element in the pre-Clovis theory, and ultimately further supports Dillehay's Multiple Migration Theory as well. Lastly, the site of the Lauricocha Cave in the Andes, of 9500 BP, demonstrates that subsistence strategies were at least advancing by this point, as the data demonstrates the hunting of different animals, and foraging of certain plants like tubers. The points found here are also notably more efficient than what has been discovered elsewhere. Another important aspect of the Lauricocha rises from the seven human burial sites found. The remains are characterized as having long heads and broad faces, which could also suggest multiple migration sources This could be a product of physical adaptation that occurred over a significant amount of time, or could imply that these people were part of a much smaller voyage to South America. The biological variance seen among the remains of the earliest humans found throughout the continent demonstrates the impact of genetic drift in a newly formed habitat. The Lauricocha Cave is interesting because it illustrates a dramatic shift in cultural development and it is situated in the Andes at about 4000masl. The early settlers, who brought with them the very knowledge which had allowed them to survive in their previous habitat, preceded by their successful voyage to South America, and who managed to establish settlements here over a wide range of environments would lead one to believe that these people exhibit sophisticated methods of survival.
Incidentally, a correlation exists between the expansion of subsistence methods and the rise of culture. South America consists of an immense amount of environmental regions, and subsistence is believed to have been maintained throughout many of these differing regions. Settlement within these varying environments seems to be a product of a stabilized subsistence, and the adaptation experienced by these settlers both biologically and ecologically must be monumental in the evolutionary progression of humans in this region. “The proliferation of a greater number of archaeological sites and the exploitation of a wider variety of food resources after 11,000 to 10,500 BP reflects a broadening of the subsistence base to include progressively greater amounts of plants, as well as smaller animals, birds, aquatic creatures, and invertebrates. People who used these consistently available resources probably stayed in one place longer than those who relied heavily on hunting mobile game. Thus, people began to settle and develop local traditions of technology (Dillehay, 261).” Many early peopling theories propose that after people began settling, the populations grew, forcing new territories to be explored. Presumably, this created a inter-dependency between distant neighbors through sharing of knowledge or even trade. While Caniero argues that warfare must have ensued to force people into more unbearable territories, the spread of population may indicate that the carrying capacity was reached in certain areas. With an unstable climate and constantly changing ecosystems, there could be several factors involved in their patterns of settlement. Regardless of how these people may have interacted with one another, it is fairly certain that many newly formed villages must have contacted one another for many reasons. While several theories contemplate how these people interacted, we know that agriculture is expanding at this time, which is monumental.
Accordingly, the demonstration of a significant shift in culture takes place over thousands of years up to around the range of 2,000 to 4,000 BP. Moseley states that, archaeologists mainly agree that the creation of pottery marks the beginning of civilization in South America. Settlement began to centralize throughout the Andean Tropical Highlands, which consist of the Lower Montane Forests at the base of the Amazon Basin, the Atacama Desert on the coast, and all the way up to the Andes Mountains and the valleys in between. Occupation of the highlands seems to have been comprised on the basis that resources were abundant because of an array of differing environments in the vicinity. The convenience of a stable subsistence inspires thought beyond what is needed for survival, as cultural development begins to expand exponentially throughout South America. This expansion is demonstrated on multiple levels, through agriculture, architecture, art, sociopolitical factors, and religion. It is safe to assume that agriculture, ceramics; which provide storage for resources, and heddle weaving; which led to wool all likely spread together. An abundance of wool most likely accumulated in the Andes with llama and alpaca herding. In congruence with wool, it is possible that herders recognized that water supply could easily be manipulated, and thus irrigation is approached more methodically. This concept may have literally trickled from the sierra uplands and on downward to more coastal environments starting high in the Andes, where rainfall heavily provides a perfect support system for grains like quinoa, and potatoes which are seen as far back as the settlement of Monte Verde dating almost 10,000 years and in the Ayacucho Caves roughly 6,000 years later. However, evidence seems to support that agriculture began in the northern coastal regions and spread South before making its way East. Early maize also appears at least within this time frame, as data recovered in the Ayacucho Caves dates all the way back to around 4,500 BP. The earliest confirmed date of corn in these highlands is estimated at around 3,200-2,800 BP. With rapid ecological variations partly due to changing climate and human interference, the biological framework is essentially rebuilt genetically, as maize most likely transformed into corn over an extended period of time. With the many strains of corn and their respective locations, the ecological variables involved in the evolution of corn are virtually infinite in possibilities and this is a distinct parallel with the biological adaptation experienced by these people as well. With the mountain water run off and complex river systems located throughout the region, farming seems inevitable within this area. In the foothills, a prevalence of coca leaves, fruit, and trees must have emerged, however it is estimated that 90% of the forestry has disappeared over time, so evidence within this area is scarce. The coastal river valleys include a suitable environment for corn, beans, squash, peppers, fruit trees, and a wide range of aquatic animals and fish. Evidence found here dates back to 4000 BP.
Incidentally, farming flourished in these regions with the rain and proper manipulation of water supply. Fishing had probably occurred for thousands of year up until this point, but technology quickly began advancing. Ceramics provide some of the earliest incite to cultural growth in South America. While ceramics likely resulted due to domestication and settlement, it most likely led to the structural development of civilization, while the chronology varies between the many differing villages. Ceramic fragments date back to 3,500 BC in Northern Colombia at Monsu. Artifact assemblages of this site consist of rimmed griddles probably used to process manioc and other root crops, alongside plates. Design of the pottery sometimes consisted of curvilinear incision and punctuation, resembling an early stage of some of the art seen later. Further down South on the coast of modern day Ecuador, roughly 400 years later, more complex ceramics began to appear. The Valdivia tradition is significant, as it is a main reference point in time for pottery. “In coastal Ecuador Valdivia farmers were producing pottery by 5000 BP. Yet more than a millennium passed before ceramics and agriculture spread the 400km down the desert coast where intensive farming required irrigation and land reclamation (Moseley, 144).” Ceramics probably spread throughout the region, with the help of the various river and irrigation systems, and arguably inspired early incidences of trade among various groups. Consequently, the river systems could have easily brought awareness in the form of ceramics, and at the site of the La Gruta, Orinoco, Eastern Venezuela, pottery found from 4000 BP displays a focus on art, with more incision techniques, painting, and animal carvings. The environment may be particularly significant in the prevailing artistic techniques used, as the Amazon is home to many unique biological species, and a wide variety of psychoactive plants. Animal effigies were also found here, which indicates a shift in conscious awareness at the very least. In the Andes, ceramics are dated between 4300 and 3800 BP and show characteristics of earlier ceramics found in South America. After agriculture was realized, irrigation and pottery most likely followed shortly after. While the irrigation provided a stable source of water for plant life, it may have inadvertently gave rise to trade, which potentiated a need for societal structure.
Through advanced agriculture, human interaction must have increased. Irrigation systems probably have led to human interaction and conflicts probably arose frequently. A need for social organization became greater and greater. Villages most likely began settling sporadically through a broad time frame, but advanced subsistence led to a surplus of resources, which ultimately led to an exchange of goods. The Vertical Economy Surplus Generation Trade Model adds to this idea that the economy of trade produces a need to agriculture. This theory seems feasible, but thousands of isolated variables could have played a role as well. In any case, social structure begins to form through a variety of ways. It seems evident that once subsistence is maintained, and a surplus is fortified, the next link in this progression lies within the domestication of land through architecture. And again, the environment plays a crucial role in the planning and building of architecture as well. The ruins of the architecture created by Paraiso Tradition consist of U Shaped sanctuaries and are arguably the most ceremonial structures in the Andean region. It is believed that these ceremonial structures were built for a variety of reasons, or at least used for a variety of reasons after its original intention was fulfilled. Logic implies that various uses of these raised platforms provided an isolated location for matters pertaining to civil, political, astronomical, religion, or economic functions. In the Lurin Valley, lies a temple of massive proportion. “By today’s architectural formula for standing room, it was designed to accommodate an audience of 65,000 people – more than six times the population that has traditionally resided in the lower Lurin (Dillehay, 141).” Clearly a large population was necessary for the construction of this site, but they seemed to have disappeared. Excavation of this site revealed that this monument was built from 1,100 BC and finished at 850BC. Another interesting find here consists of a child’s cranium, which is believed to be a votive offering beneath one of the floors of the main hearth. In the center of this structure, atrium burials of both sexes were encountered. The graves do not support a social hierarchical arrangement based on the pottery found inside the graves, but to be buried here at all must account for some importance. 'U' shaped monuments are seen in the Ayacucho region as well consisting of pottery with slight artistic rendering, and even a 3,440-year-old bowl was found with metalworking tools and gold beaten down to a foil. Additionally, the Chiripa site located on the southern shore of Lake Titicaca dates between 3400 and 2850 BP, however people had probably resided there for some several hundreds of years before they built the platforms. “Atop the Chiripa mound, 16 small rectangular buildings ringed the court and opened to it (Dillehay, 156).” These buildings are comprised of one room, which is consistent with a lot of Incan architecture which occurs later.
Further in time, The Early Horizon demonstrates arguably, the most rapid transformation in the long line of cultural progression. While northern coastal communities are alleged to have decreased in population, ecological factors were partly to blame due to draught and other inhospitable conditions. However, this coast seems to be slowly receding into the ocean and is vulnerable to storms from the El Nino effect, and tidal waves caused by earthquakes all could have had influence on the decline of these civilizations. In any case, the focus shifts inland back towards the Andes and the cultural growth seen within. Northwest of Lake Titicaca, the Pukara temple of around 2400 BP, a ceremonial monument of considerable detail and quality is discovered positioned upon massive hillside terraces. “The spacious summit was occupied by a rectangular sunken court with well-made stone walls. On three sides it was surrounded and enclosed by a series of detached, one room structures, creating an arrangement very reminiscent of the court-and-room complex at Chiripa (Dillehay, 159).” Ceramics found here exhibits intricate design and complexity. Decorations of these ceramics include red, white, and black paints, while a particular style seemingly progresses over a short span of time. This phase can be characterized by integrating a stylized, but realistic incorporation of motifs such as felines, lizards, birds, serpents, and fish to name a few. Detailed carved sculptures begin to appear, depicting humans or animorphic gods. Pukara ceramics and textiles have been discovered in areas of the West, and throughout the Andes. This suggests that an economic system was most likely just as advanced as their art, prevailed through trade. The Paracas sites which may have been influenced by Chavin due to trade, withhold a new level of ceramics. The vessels found at these sites demonstrate some of the earliest features which are linked to Chavin, such as a stirrup-spout and distinct animal imagery. The textiles of the Paracas, which were comprised of wool most likely attained from the highlands, were very complex and detailed. The distribution of this revolutionized art, seems based upon social status, especially through textiles. Another intriguing aspect seen within the Paracas is seen within the burial techniques used here. Burial chambers of the Paracas resemble many unique characteristics. The mummies found were delicately wrapped up and well preserved, and lowered down into tombs which were located under the main platforms of their necropolis. They bound these bodies in an upright sitting position. The tombs, protected from bacteria and humidity, often contained offerings. Clearly, the process of burial establishes a sense of religious significance and social hierarchy, as many of these bodies are believed to be relatives of kuraka-like statuses. The Paracas sites have been recognized archaeologically as some of the most complete and important evidence. This probably lies in their methodical approach towards preservation within their tombs. In any case, this essentially leads into another very important time-frame of cultural development, known as the Early Horizon.
Furthermore, advancement in all realms of cultural transformation is experienced over this age which dates from roughly 2900-2200 BP. Chavin can be characterized by the formation of the first unified culture as a whole. It is characterized by its ceramics, and more importantly, the integration of art and many cultural aspects. The centralization of this specific culture existed at an elevation of 3,177m, at the site of Chavin de Huantar. This structure is positioned near the conjunction of two small streams, of which the Mosna runs into the Rio Maranon. Two main temples lie adjacent, but separated by age. The Old Temple started with the Castillo and was built in the shape of a U. The New Temple was erected in congruence with the Old Temple, showing signs of improved architectural process and an incorporation of carvings in the rock, which depicted various renderings of animals and other accentuated figures. Chavin art takes on a number of diverse styles and contains important cultural symbols. Through styles like kenning, bilateral symmetry, anatropic organization, and iconography, the diversity of styles is remarkably complex. Through new technology a number of mediums are seen within the Chavin style, including metalworking, textiles, ceramics, and obsidian. Comparison of textiles versus ceramics, and other mediums suggests an order of material hierarchy, which is most likely dependent on economic and political conditions. The art in this region is still regarded as groundbreaking even when compared to much more recent art from all over the world. The importance of this cultural phenomenon undoubtedly remains prevalent, but the provided evidence is unable to clarify the exact cause of the founding and dismantling of these early cultures.
Moreover, while trade and advanced agriculture through irrigation systems would potentially unite many people, the advance in art seems to be bound to religion and ideology in Chavin. Hallucinogens are at least acknowledged at this point, as San Pedro is heavily referenced throughout Chavin art forms. Along with other psychoactive substances, San Pedro was probably domesticated to a degree, and gave rise to religion. While obviously this cannot be confirmed, hallucinogens occur all over the world, and are virtually used by indigenous people in parts all over the world for spiritual purposes still to this day. They are still used throughout the Amazon, and regarded as a means of communication with a superior being or deities. With hallucinogen use on the rise, religion is probably spreading congruently. The concept of ‘crisis cults’ seems relevant, as Burger argues that many of these sporadic cultures that did not last long are due to various detrimental influences, adding that religion serves to relieve stress, control the masses, and provides meaning for life and death to individuals. Consequentially crisis cults may have formed out of a number of reasons, including ecological changes, economic disruptions, political conditions and warfare, or demographical conditions, and probably a combination of these types of situations. Integrating religion with a political system can be effective, in conquering a specific region, as history clearly demonstrates. It can also be problematic in itself inspiring revolution in some cases. As El Nino effects and tidal waves must have played a key role in many lives, it is not out of the question to assume that a horrific event would bring people together, and it is possible that religion spread through the art, and the influence affects an entire region. The demise of Chavin culture could be a distinct reflection of how it came to be. While the Chavin period may have lasted only a few hundred years, many cultural aspects remained culturally embedded into the people who followed in the footsteps of Chavin culture.
In addition, after the collapse of Chavin, unification occurs but through political settlement. Various civilizations formed around this time. The Moche State of 200-600 AD, culture begins to appear much more modernized, as a state religion which was probably dependent on hallucinogens, the massive and constantly expanding irrigation systems, a stratification of economy, and technological advancements within all realms of production probably can account for this significant transformation. The Moche is known for taking over Huaca del Sol and Huaca del Luna. Through repair of Huaca del Sol, which consisted of stamped lineal markers placed in a specific order, the Moche quickly spread into a metropolis and intensive irrigation was employed around it. Significant burial sites consist of textiles, and other miscellaneous grave goods. Moche culture is another brick in the wall of cultural evolution and was connected to Nazca culture as well. On the Southern Peru Coast, the Nazca culture dates from 2200 to 2755 BP. Within Nazca culture Paracas art styles are seen throughout sites, and while it is not recognized, it seems entirely possible that the Paracas and Nazca are close relatives. The Nazca Lines contain several geoglyphs of various animals, some of which are found in the Amazon. Road systems appear in the arid deserts along with the geoglyphs. While this may have started as a calendar, or lineage markers, it is believed that pathways were later implemented at this site at a later date. While many other cultures seemed to all stand in unity with the Moche and Nazca, it is safe to say that the Andean region still promotes variability in subsistence, and through mastered agricultural techniques and newly formed roads, stratified economy began to ensue. While no currency is known to exist, art of all types, hallucinogens, and other various crops were most likely used as a form of currency. However, a trend seems to be constantly repeating itself throughout this massive landscape. Archaeological data presents multiple theories that these cultures fade out of existence, rather than regroup or settle elsewhere. Although, the coastal regions seem to have experienced several draught and climatic changes which is perpetrated as the cause of the Moche demise between 600 to100 AD. ”The Moche landscape was so deeply scarred and altered that construction of entirely new irrigation systems was required in many areas…Erosive flooding washed massive loads of sentiment into the ocean, which the sea reworked and deposited as beach sand.(Moseley, 225).” It seems that the rapidly changing ecology seems to be adapting to the immense amount of people manipulating the land, and thus disrupting the ecosystem. This could also be part of a seasonal climatic pattern that is not fully understood just as easily. The demise of the Moche led way for chiefdom states to arise, like the Huari and Tiwanaku, which are characterized by intensified sociopolitical transition. These cultures had also showed significant signs of decline by the year 1000 AD.
While a variety of influences likely caused the demise of the majority of these cultures, war is an inevitable byproduct of human expansion. As many of these groups are forced to compete due to massive population, while many of these people probably ended up fighting to reclaim land that their ancestors once owned, or access to every major corner of the continent, warfare is sometimes the only means to survival in extenuating circumstances. It is interesting that subsistence maintained survivability, and then in the face of war, survival rate regressed after this long pattern of evolution unfolded. Incidentally, this line of thought led to the militarization of this region, and ultimately the formation of the Inca Empire. A few generations ahead of Tahuantinsuyu, the Inca experienced much sociopolitical instability, as political assassinations were not uncommon in the early stages of development. However, the Inca soon overcame this obstacle and one of the most intricate political systems in the world emerged. Spread out all across these regions, created a reciprocity that most likely stretched from Chile all of the way up to Ecuador enveloping the Andean region almost in its entirety, along with much of the Amazon rainforest. Roads were formed between most of these regions large scale reciprocity most likely ensued between all of the regions. Through irrigation, water supply could be controlled, and thus blocked all together. When the Inca conquered this region, it seems apparent that many joined in compliance to avoid conflict. The State of Tahuantinsuyu, established a uniform religion, which can also be correlated to social control. Many wars ensued, and Atahualpa remained in control until 1532, when the Conquistadors gained control. The ruins located throughout Peru speak for themselves beyond this point in time.
The transition which occurred throughout South America and its occupants truly stands as one of the biggest mysteries of today. While so many variables can be factored in from a cultural level, then combined with the ecological diversity and transition that occurred, the relationship between mankind and South America culminated into one of the most fascinating groupings of people in the history of humans. While multiple migrations likely took place, subsistence probably allocated time for the development of agricultural strategies, and through ceramics the onset of small scale civilizations began to form, followed by a cultural revolution seen within art, architecture, sociopolitical systems, and religious tendencies. The disbanding of these cultures is an intriguing question that may never be answered, but crisis cults heightened by religious unity through hallucinogenic use seems to at least be comprised of substantial logic. This eventually allowed other cultures to thrive, only to fade away soon after settlement. The instability in cultures seen all over may have only made conquering the region that much easier for the Inca, as they were clearly the most sophisticated culture throughout South America.
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